The Origin And Mystery of Being Pt 3

CONSTELLATION OF PISCES*

The DOGONS drew pictures of the Nommos as a symbols of fish.

The fish represents the Pisces Constellation.

The Sun enters Pisces on March 13th and remains there until April 19th. During that time it crosses the equator from the southern to the Northern Celestial Hemisphere on about March 22nd. That point in time is regarded as the Beginning of Spring.

The Vernal Equinos, in the Northern part of the globe. The Equinox is also the particular place where the Sun actually crosses the Celestial Equator in a diagonal climb.

It maybe remembered, that this point marks the Zero-Hour position in R.A. (Right Ascension). From which the 24 hour of the Vernal Equinox is zero hours R.A.

And Zero Degrees Declination. Today that point is --- Pisces.

In Chaldea the Original "Man " Called "Oan" or "Oannes" was the 9th and last ruler of the 5th Dynasty. His pyramid text are found on the walls of the corridors of the burial chambers at Sakkara.

Onnaas dates back from the course of Procession about 225 B.C. The Vernal birth place passed into the sign of the fish. A Christian symbol also used to this or the phrase ....

Drop Nets and become Fishers of Men (Mathew 4:19 and Mark 1:17).

"Holy Mrekrut" comes from it. A Ma. is a fish. So It's a holy fish.

And the Christ which is also an Egyptian word, "KARAST" (Christ) As well as Messiah- which is Messeh. To annoint with fat of the crocodile.

Who have been represented for 2,155 years by the Ram as Ra or sacrificial lamb, Osiris.

And about 255 B.C. as the "Fish-Man". Was to come once more as a manifestation

from The Celestial Waters. Likewise in a synoptic writings of the apostles, Jesus who was called a fisherman, walked on water (John 21:13)

The Messiah is called the Dag "The Fish" Dag-On. Which is the collection of ancient Rabbonic writings , constituing the basis for the Orthodox Mosesism. He is tied into the sign of the fish. The sign of SIM.MAH "Pisces" The hebrews at one time connected his coming with some conjunction or occurance, in the sign of the fishes.

The Constellation called "HUWT" Which is the name of the astrological house of the Mosesites and shows that the Jews were not only in Procession of the astronominal symbolism, but also of the tradition by which it could be interpreted.

So in conclusion, The story concerning GEB as being the Cackler and the Nommos who laid the Egg, that generated creation. It Relates to where your Monotheistic religion gets the infamous question, "What came first? The chicken or the egg?

GEB plays an important part in Ani's Egyptian "Book of the Dead" And he is the one who is asked to open the jaws of the deceased to open their eyes and unbandage their limbs.

African knowledge on video- Einstein relativity linking Dongon of Mali knowledge of the solar system and more

Spirit of Sankofa writes......

Em-Hotep*

Watching ancient knowledge by venue of video, can make learning a little more interesting. Especially, for those of us that enjoy reading about it.

So let take advantage of every option out there.
Enjoy these are a selection of great videos pack with knowledge.

Know ThySelf!
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_3QZhQ-mrkE&feature=channel

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gaqudrS0o-I&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8UHeE9Riqw&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e13LSzOeG1U&feature=related

The Hell of Ancient Egypt*

Chapter 125 from the Book of the Dead:

"Papyrus of Ani"---Weighing of the Heart"*


God, during civilization's early years, was not much of a public figure. Indeed, prior to Moses, even the Jew's appear to have worshipped pagan gods, and apparently, prior to the handing down of the Ten Commandments, he was "unpublished". In fact, most scholars believe that, only much later, were the earliest books of the Bible provided to mankind. Early on, God seems to have revealed himself to specific individuals, but not necessarily to his creations in general.
Therefore, the Christian, Jewish and Islamic visions of the afterlife are relatively new ones, including their concept of hell. In fact, hell may very well have been invented by the ancient Egyptians, at least as a public reference. To put the whole of this more simply, the recorded concept of hell in ancient Egypt predates the recorded concept of hell in our modern religions.

The principal sources for our knowledge of the Egyptian concept of hell are the Books of the Netherworld which are found inscribed on the walls of the royal tombs of the New Kingdom in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes, and then later on papyrus and other funerary objects belonging to commoners.

The concept of hell in the ancient Egyptian religion is very similar to those of our modern religions. Those who were judged unfavorably faced a very similar fate to our modern concept of hell, and perhaps even more specifically to the more Middle Age concept of it as a specific region beneath the earth. For the damned, the entire, uncontrollable rage of the deity was directed against those who were condemned through their evils. They were tortured in every imaginable way and "destroyed", thus being consigned to nonexistence. They were deprived of their sense organs, were required to walk on their heads and eat their own excrement. They were burned in ovens and cauldrons and were forced to swim in their own blood, which Shezmu, the god of the wine press, squeezed out of them.

One difference between our modern concept of heaven and the ancient Egyptian one is that even the blessed faced perilous obstacles in the Netherworld, such as demons that guarded the gates of the netherworld, which required a knowledge of spells to overcome. It sometimes appear that they had to travel through the same hell of the damned, but conceptually, at least, they occupied a very different space.

This nocturnal journey of the blessed, along with the sun god through the underworld was not a prominent theme in the oldest royal mortuary literature, the Pyramid Text and the descriptions of hell are therefore absent from these spells. By contrast, the concept that emerges from the Books of the Netherworld is reflected in the non-royal funerary spells found in the Coffin Text and the Book of the Dead (The Book of Coming Forth by Day), even though these do not contain elaborate descriptions of hell either. That is not very surprising, considering that these spells take for granted that their owners will not be judged favorably in the weighing of their hearts in the afterlife. Spells that mention the dangers of the world of the damned, which the blessed dead pass on their nightly journey are plentiful, but these spells are aimed principally at steering clear of such dangers, and the subject of the fate of the damned is therefore usually avoided as well.

On the other hand, the role of the dead king is different. During his life he was required, as the incarnation and representative of the sun god, to maintain the cosmic and social order (ma'at) established by the god of creation. He had to repel the forces of chaos which constantly threatened the order of the world. After his death, the king united with the sun disk and his divine body merged with his creator. In this new role he continued to perform the task of subduing the powers of chaos. This active role of the king and sun god necessitated a detailed description of the punishment of the damned, who represent the forces of evil. Their fate is therefore described in terms similar to those used for earthly adversaries of the king and of Egypt. They became enemies who are "reckoned with," "overthrown," "repelled," and "felled". The precise nature of the deeds that bought them to this fate are never stipulated, nor is there a direct relationship between their punishment and the crimes that they committed during their lives. There are no separate areas in hell for different categories of evildoers, nor is there any sort of Purgatory, where sinners can repent and be admitted to the company of the followers of Re at a later stage.

The crimes of those who are condemned to hell consist of nothing more and nothing less than having acted against the divine world order established at the beginning of creation. Hence, they have excluded themselves from ma'at, while at the same time revealing themselves as agents of chaos. After death, they became forever reduced to a state of nonbeing., which was the chaotic state of the cosmos before creation. For them, there is no renewal and no regeneration of life, but only a second, definitive death. Rather than being the followers of Re, they are the "gang of Seth." Seth is the god who brought death into the world by murdering Osiris. They might also be referred to as the "children of Nut." Nut was the mother of Seth, and therefore of the first generation of mankind who rebelled against Re.

In every respect, the fate of the damned is the opposite of that of the blessed. When the righteous died and were mummified and buried with the proper rites, they could expect to start a new life in the company of Re and Osiris. The ritual known as the Opening of the Mouth ensured that they would regain control over their senses. Their bodies rest in their tombs until sunrise, when Re is reborn form the underworld in the east. Then, their ba-souls leave the tomb unhindered and join the sun god. They spend a wonderful time in the Field of Rushes (paradise), where they have abundant cool air, food, drink and even sexual pleasures. At night, when Re once more enters the underworld in the west and unites with Osiris, they return to their mummified bodies.

However, when the damned died, their flesh was torn away by demons and their mummy wrappings were removed so that their bodies were left to decompose. In the underworld that the blessed successfully navigate, their order of things is reversed, even to the extent that the damned have to walk upside down, eat their own excrement and drink their own urine. Their hands are tied behind their backs, often around stakes. Their heads and limbs are severed from their bodies and their flesh is cut off their bones. Their hearts are removed and their ba-souls are separated from their bodies, forever unable to return to them. They even loose their shadows, which were considered an important part of the ancient Egyptian being. They have no air and suffer from hunger and thirst, as they receive no funerary offerings. Worst of all, they are denied the reviving light of the sun god, who ignores them, even as they cry out load and wail when he passes them in the underworld at night.

Hence, they are excluded from the eternal cosmic cycle of renewal and are instead assigned to the "outer darkness, the primeval chaotic world before creation, which is situated in the deepest recesses of the underworld, outside the created world. They are continuously punished by demons, who are the representatives of chaos. Indeed, the demons are often recruited from the ranks of the damned themselves, so that they torture and kill one another. They are subjected to knives and swords and to the fire of hell, often kindled by fire spitting snakes.

These horrible punishments were carried out in the "slaughtering place" or "place of destruction", and presided over by the fierce goddess Sekhmet, whose butchers hack their victims to pieces and burn them with inextinguishable fire, sometimes in deep pits or in cauldrons in which they are scorched, cooked and reduced to ashes. Demons feed on their entrails and drink their blood.

Another location was the Lake of Fire, which was first mentioned in the Book of Two Ways in the Coffin Text (Spell 1054/1166) and illustrated in the Book of the Dead (Chapter 126). Like the "outer darkness," it is a place of regeneration for the sun god and his blessed followers, to whom it provides nourishment and cool water, but a place of destruction for the damned. Birds even fly away from it when they experience the burning, bloody water and small the stench of putrefaction which rises from it. In chapter 126 of the Book of the Dead, its shores are guarded by four baboons who sit at the bow of the barque of Re and who are usually connected to the sunrise. There, they act as judges of the divine tribunal in order to decide who might be granted access through "the secret portals of the West" and who will be delivered to the hellhound, who, according to another spell, is in charge of this place. That demon is the "Swallower of Millions," responsible for devouring corpses, or their shadows, snatching hearts and inflicting injury without being seen.


Judgment of the Dead from the Book of the Dead

By the end of the 18th Dynasty, a similar demon appears in chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead that depicts the judgment of the deceased before the divine tribunal. This is the better known judgment of the dead in which the heart of the deceased is weighed against the feather of Ma'at on a scale. In many cases, the Lake of Fire in Chapter 126 is also shown in this chapter. A late, Demontic text tells us that if the deceased's "evil deeds outnumber his good deeds he is delivered to the Swallower....; his soul as well as his body are destroyed and never will he breath again." In the vignette this monster is called the "Swallower of the Damned". The demon (Ammit) is represented with the head of a crocodile, the forelegs and body of a lion and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus. The demon might also sometimes be referred to as the "beast of destiny". She usually sits near the balance, ready to devour her victim. However, since the owner of the Book of the Dead in question is naturally supposed to survive the judgment, the Swallower is almost never shown grabbing her victim.

*******************************************

Ani Papyrus * Afterlife from the book of coming forth by day.



There are, however, a few late instances dating to Roman times that do show the demon's wrath. In one instance, the monster is sitting beside a fiery cauldron into which the emaciated bodies of the damned, stripped of their mummy wrappings, are thrown. At this late period, Egyptian concepts began to be influenced by images from elsewhere in the Hellenistic world, as is illustrated by a representation of the Swallower that is very reminiscent of the Greek Sphinx, who was also a demon of fate and death.

In turn, later Egyptian representations of the Christian hell, from Coptic and other early Christian texts, may well have influenced medieval European descriptions and depictions of the Inferno.
********************************
References:

Title Author Date Publisher Reference Number
Ancient Gods Speak, The: A Guide to Egyptian Religion Redford, Donald B. 2002 Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-515401-0
Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, The Wilkinson, Richard H. 2003 Thames & Hudson, LTD ISBN 0-500-05120-8
Dictionary of Ancient Egypt, The Shaw, Ian; Nicholson, Paul 1995 Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers ISBN 0-8109-3225-3
Life of the Ancient Egyptians Strouhal, Eugen 1992 University of Oklahoma Press ISBN 0-8061-2475-x
Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, The Redford, Donald B. (Editor) 2001 American University in Cairo Press, The ISBN 977 424 581 4
Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, The Shaw, Ian 2000 Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-815034-2

History of Algebra*

The history of Algebra begins in Egypt, Babylon, and India. Although it was in these areas that the roots of Algebra began, the message and teachings of it would eventually spread throughout the world. The Arabs first practiced this mathematical form, and they are given credit for spreading the teachings of Algebra to the world. It was they who brought Algebra from Egypt, Babylon, and India, and spread it to Europe and, eventually, the world.

The history of algebra itself is broken into several sub-categories, and has been expanded upon by several hundred of the world greatest mathematicians. Some of the sub-categories include the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, abstract linear spaces, as well as quadratic, cubic and quartic equations.

Not only can Algebra be divided into sub-categories as subjects, but the groups that studied, or developed them can also categorize them. Egyptian Algebra, Babylonian Algebra, Greek Geometric Algebra, Diophantine Algebra, Hindu Algebra, Arabic Algebra, European Algebra since 1500, and modern Algebra are the most popular categories. All the different theories within Algebra each have been worked millions of times, checked and rechecked for their validity

Blackness Laid The Foundation of Modern Theology*

Christ's African roots








April 22, 2000
By Selwin R Cudjoe
==================


Today Christians all over the world celebrate the resurrection of Christ: the symbolic triumph of life over death. According to Christians, Christ was crucified on Good Friday, rose from the dead on Easter Sunday and ascended into heaven subsequently.

Thus, the certitude that those who believe in Him will also have everlasting life in the company of God and His panoply of angels.Few Christians know that this exciting story is taken from the Egyptian (read African) religion, the base upon which Judeo-Christianity and Islam is built.

In fact, Christianity and Islam are nothing more than African religions adapted to fill the needs of a specific time and place.Their theology represents the development of African theology. Ideas such as the one, eternal God; the creation of the world; the future life; and three persons in one God are taken directly from the Egyptian religion.


The very cross, symbol of eternal life to which Christians cling, is taken from Egyptian religion. Otto Meinardus notes that "the ankh, originally the pharaonic symbol of life, was not employed in a specifically Christian context, that is, representing salvation through the vicarious death of Christ, before the fifth or sixth century, or one or two centuries after the Christianisation of the Nile Valley."


(Two Thousand years of Coptic Religion.)Three thousand years before Christianity, the Egyptians proclaimed the doctrine of eternal life and the resurrection of a spiritual body. The prayers, hymns and short litanies inscribed upon the walls of the tombs of the Egyptian kings referred to the presence of life after death.


In his introduction to the Egyptian Book of the Dead (1500 BC), Wallis Budge notes that "The chief features of the Egyptian religion remained unchanged from the Vth and VI dynasties down to the period when the Egyptians embraced Christianity, after the preaching of St Mark, the Apostle in Alexandria, AD 69, so firmly had the early beliefs taken possession of the Egyptian mind.


"The resurrection story is based upon the ancient story of the resurrection of Osiris. Like Christ, he was the victim of a cruel death and a horrible mutilation before he ascended into heaven.


The Egyptians believed his brother Set, who dismembered his body to deny him a second life, killed Osiris. Through her magical powers, Isis, his wife, collected the various parts of his body.

Three days later, she restored him to life in the underworld where he became judge of the dead, exercising functions similar to those attributed to God. Osiris was killed on a Friday and restored on a Sunday.


Plutarch rendered one version of the Osiris story. To him, "Osiris was the god through whose sufferings and death the Egyptian hoped that his body might rise again in some transformed or glorified shape. To him who had conquered death and had become the king of the other world, the Egyptian appealed in prayer for eternal life though his victory and power" (Egyptian Book of the Dead).

Every funeral inscription written between 31 BC in Egypt right down to the prayers on the coffins of the Roman period noted that "what is done for Osiris is done also for the deceased.

The state and condition of Osiris are the state and condition of the deceased." Just as Christians identified with Christ and his resurrection, followers of Egypt's monotheistic religion identified with the life and resurrection of Osiris.

The Egyptians also celebrated Easter. In the month of Choiak, ceremonies connected with Osiris's sufferings, death and resurrection were very popular. Religious observances took place in the temples and in the country while ceremonies connected with the burial of the dead, the use of amulets, and certain aspects of funeral rituals also took place.

On this Easter Sunday, it is an African religion that offers us the possibility of redemption. When Paul introduced the concept of a Redeemer born into a wicked world "who gave himself for our sins, that he might deliver us from this evil world" (Galatians: 3-4), he elaborated a theology of the Cross.

He was not speaking of the Roman cross of punishment but the Egyptian ankh (cross), a symbol of Christ's victory over death that early Christians adopted during the first three centuries of their existence.

In the 5th century AD the Roman-Latin cross became the Christian symbol.Until then, the Egyptian ankh represented the living Christ: "I am crucified with Christ: nevertheless I live: yet not I but the Christ within me.

"The latter was a Gnostic concept. Christianity's triumph over Egyptian monotheism occurred because it represented a more democratic tendency and was suited better to the aspirations of the everyday person.

Whereas Egyptian monotheism was designed so that only kings and rich persons could gain everlasting life, they alone could afford the expensive burial cost that assured the afterlife, Christianity offered the promise of eternal life to everyone.

One only had to be baptized and believe in a risen Christ. As Christianity began to spread, Jesus and Osiris were presented as saviours to whom men and women could turn to be assured of immortality.

Although the Gnostics, one of the early branches of the Christian church, regarded the resurrection as a spiritual rather than a physical event, the physicality of Christ's death and resurrection captured the imagination of the common person.

By the second century AD, orthodoxy and rigidity began to shape the early Christian Church. Irenaeus, a Christian writer of the second century, argued that there could only be one Church that must be orthodox (right-thinking), catholic (universal) and apostolic (Petrine). Outside that Church "there is no salvation.

"By 325 AD, the Council of Nicea asserted Christ's "divinity" and assured its members that He was "begotten of the Father;" the "true God of true God. "After Nicea, the Egyptian influence on the Christian Church diminished. By 2000 AD few of us are aware of the African contribution to this important salvific event.

As we enter a new millennium, it must be remembered that blackness laid the foundation of modern theology, which offers salvation to so many people.

High Priest of Amun Ra*

Kings and Queens
4th dynastySeneferu, Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure, Djedefre, etc.5th dynastyUserkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare, Niuserre, Djedkare Isesi, Unas, etc6th dynastyTeti, Userkare, Pepi I, Nemtyemsaf I, Pepi II, Nitocris, etc.11th dynastyKings named Mentuhotep and Intef12th dynastyAmenemhet I - IV, Senusret I-III18th dynastyAmenhotep I-IV, Tuthmosis I-IV, Akhenaten, Tutankhamen, Aye, Horemheb, etc.19th dynastySety I-II, Ramesses I-II, Merenptah, Amenmesses, Tawosret.20th dynastySethnakht, Ramesses IIIRamesses IV - XI 25th dynastyAlara, Kashta, Piye,Shabaka, Shabataka,Taharqa, Tanutamun, etc.Cleopatra VII PhilopatorQueens (D1-6)- Old KingdomQueens (D11-13) Middle Kingd.Queens (D16-20)- New KingdomQueens (D21-29)- Late Period Officials, Priesthood etc.
Viziers (New Kingdom)High Priests of AmunGod's Wives of AmunHigh Priests of PtahViceroys of NubiaWho's who of New Kingdom Amarna Period
AkhenatenQueen Nefertitiinscriptions Queen Nefertiti.Queen KiyaSmenkhareTutankhamenTombs at AmarnaHouses at Amarna Tombs:
Valley of the Kings, Valley of the QueensTheban Tombs,Tombs at AbydosTombs at El Kab Tombs in AswanEarly dynastic SaqqaraNew Kingdom SaqqaraThe Unis Cemetary Mastabas at the Giza Plateau
Giza Mastabas 1000 cemetaryGiza Mastaba 2000 cemetary Giza Mataba 2300 cemetaryGiza Mastaba 4000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 5000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 6000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 7000 cemetary Mummy Caches
Tomb DB320Tomb KV35
The High Priests of Amun
(Thanks to Sesen and Rozette for some of these)I have attempted to provide some references for these officials. This is not meant to be a thorough bibliography (alas, not enough time..) but an attempt to show at least some places where the existence of these individuals is attested.
18th dynasty
Thuty: First Prophet of Amun and Overseer of the treasurers. Time of Ahmose. From funerary cone in the Metropolitan Museum. The cone is inscribed for “The First Prophet of Amun and Overseer of Treasurers, Thuty The funerary cones make mention of “The good God Neb-pehty-Re (Ahmose) (The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg 44 and 59.)Minmontu : Known from a funerary cone from Thebes. UC37666. Temp Ahmose.A heart scarab of Minmontu called Senres is in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum."The owner of this jadeite heart scarab was one of the first high priests of Amun of Karnak. His name was Min-Montu, and he was called Senres, meaning "The brother has awakened again". It seems likely that an older brother died before his birth and his parents recognised their dead child in the new-born. He lived during the reign of the first king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose. The underside is inscribed with the heart spell." Text from the Global Egyptian Museum (GEM)Hapuseneb, High priest of Amun, Temp. Hatshepsut TT67. Parents: Hepu (third lector of Amun) and Ahhotep (Royal concubine); Wife: Amenhotep. Brother: Sa-Amun; Sister: Ahmose; Sons: Djehutjmes-machet, User-pekht, Aa-cheper-ka-ra-nefer; Daughters: Henut, Henut-nefert, Sen-seneb, Ta-em-resefu http://www.maat-ka-ra.de/english/personen/hapuseneb/hapuseneb.htm From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Hepusoneb (H . pw-snb), First prophet of Amun, etc., headless, son of Hepu (H. pw) and Ahhotep (J i h. -h.tp ), with text mentioning Amun lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, in Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico, 1822. (Probably from Thebes.)"Five cones belonging to Hapuseneb are in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum. His titles are Hereditary Prince and Count, Treasurer of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, First Prophet of Amun, Overseer of the Priest of Upper and Lower Egypt, and Overseer of All the Works of the King. The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg. 113Hapuseneb was the first HPA to also hold the title of Overseer of the hem priests of Upper and Lower Egypt. The second Priest of Amun Puyemre was related to Hapuseneb through marriage: he was married to Hapuseneb’s daughter Seniseneb. Seniseneb was a divine adoratrice of Amun and a temple singer. Thutmose III: A New Biography, by O’Conner and Cline (eds) pg. 107, 110Senenu was High Priest of Amun and High Priest of Hathor in Hatshepsut’s Deir el-Bahari Temple. Thutmose III: A New Biography, by O’Conner and Cline (eds) pg.125Menkheperraseneb (I), High priest of Amun, Temp. Tuthmosis III (Possibly TT 86?). Possibly the uncle of Menkheperreseneb II? It was assumed up until recently (1990s ?) that there was one High Priest of Amun with the name of Menkheperraseneb. It was assumed that this individual had two Theban tombs (TT86 and TT112). There is a precenence for people with two tomb (Senenmut - favorite of Hatshepsut - for instance). Recently it seems to have become more widely accepted that there were two High Priests with the same name.Menkheperraseneb (II), High priest of Amun, Temp. Tuthmosis III TT 112. High Priest of Amun, Superintendent of the Gold and silver treasuries, Chief of the Overseers of Craftsmen Parents: Amenemhet and Taonet (King's nurse) Fazzini, Richard A., A Statue of a High Priest Menkheperreseneb in The Brooklyn Museum, in: Studies Simpson (pdf), 209-225. (ill.).See also funerary cones: UC 37578 - 79 - 80 - 81 - 82 - 83 Items of the High Priest(s) Menkheperre-soneb at the Metropolitan Museum include several funerary cones, a vase inscribed with his namesfrom Saqqara, and a scarab on which he is referred to by the title “Overseer of the Crafts of Amun” The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg. 129Dorman has argued that there are two HPA by the name of Menkheperre-seneb. A discussion of the identification and dating of the two HPA can be found in Thutmose III: A New Biography, by O’Conner and Cline (eds) pg108-109Ahmose - First Prophet in Deir el Bahari Temple A funerary cone of the Second Prophet of Amun Ahmose also records that he was First Prophet of Amun in Henket-ankh (Mortuary Temple of Tuthmosis III in Thebes) [Hayes pg.118]Amenemhat, high priest of Amun, Temp. Amenhotep II (?) TT 97. Father: Djehutyhotep (wab-priest, Overseer of the sandal makers of Amun)A funerary cone exists in the collection of University College, London: UC 37551Funerary cones of the First Prophet of Amun Amenemhet are in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum. The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg.147Amenemhet, high priest of Amun in Karnak left an inscription outlining his career at Gebel el-Silsila. Thutmose III: A New Biography, by O’Conner and Cline (eds) pg.157Mery, high priest of Amun, Temp Amenhotep II TT 95 and 84. Parents: Nebpehtire (First prophet of Min of Koptos) and Hunayt (Chief nurse of the Lord of the Two Lands).; Wife: Dey On digitalegypt his titles are listed as: overseer of the priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, high priest of Amun, overseer of the fields of Amun, steward of Amun, overseer of the granaries (of Amun), overseer of the treasury. See UC37790 and UC37791From: Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Mery (Mrjj), First prophet of Amun , with text mentioning Amun and Hathor mistress of Dendera, black granite in Cairo Mus. CG 973."The HPA Mery usurped the tomb of the royal herald Iamunedjeh for himself and his mother Thutmose III: A New Biography, by O’Conner and Cline (eds) pg. 89Ptahmose High Priest of Amen, Vizier of the South, Mayor of Thebes, Overseer of all the works, Overseer of all the Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, Fan-bearer on the right side of the king. Served during the early part of the reign of Amenhotep III . (Redford thinks he served during the latter part of the reign.) Ptahmose is also known from a stela now in the museum in Lyon.Ptahmose is shown with his wife Apeny (Aypy), his sons Thutmosis (High priest of Horus) and Huy (met jeugdlok) as well as his daughters Nefertari, Mutemwia, Hemetnetjer, Mutnofret and another daughter named Nefertari. See: Varille A. Une stèle du vizir Ptahmes, contemporain d'Aménophis III (n° 88 du Musée de Lyon) [avec 1 planche]. 497-507 1,76 Bifao030_art_45.pdf See also museum page from LyonFunerary cones of the First Prophet of Amun Ptahmose are in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum. The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg.27 See also: Amenhotep III, by O’Conner and Cline (eds), pg.194, 202
Stela of Ptahmose, from Lyon.This is a low gif image. See pdf file above for original.Meryptah, First prophet of Amen, etc., Temp Amenhotep III. Known from a statue mentioning Meryptah with Anen, Amenemhat and Si-Mut who were 2nd, 3rd and 4th prophet respectively. Aldred thinks that Meryptah succeeded Ptahmose and served until the end of the reign of Amenhotep III. Meryptah would have served from ca. year 20 of Amenhotep's reign until the end of that reign.Meryptah was granted burial in Thebes (Qurna). Some funerary items were recovered from a pit excavated in the early 19th century.Items include a kneeling statue of Meryptah singing a hymn of praise to Re. Two Theban Notables during the Later Reign of Amenophis III, by Cyril Aldred (Journal of Near Eastern Studies 1959)The Oriental Institute in Chicago has a statue of Meryptah: Meryptah (Mrjj-pt), First prophet of Amun, etc., with text mentioning Amun-Re lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands and Ptah [south of his] wall, in Chicago (Ill.), Oriental Institute Museum, 10796.From: Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf)The Metropolitan Museum possesses three stamped mud bricks inscribed for The First Prophet of Amun Mery-ptah The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg. 306Sennufer: Sn(.j)-nfr First prophet of Amun in Khentnufer, Chief steward of the King, Overseer of prophets of Min lord of Ipu and of Ptah foremost of ( Tje)nent, etc. Ägyptisches Museum, 21595. (Probably from Tell Bast), Ref Topographical Bibliography (pdf - s16)Maya, High Priest of Amen until year 4 of Akhenaten. Redford speculates that Maya is short for Ptahmose and that Ptahmose served from the end of the reign of Amenhotep III until the beginning of the time of Akhenaten.Donald B. Redford: The Identity of the High-Priest of Amun at the Beginning of Akhenaten's Reign Journal of the American Oriental Society ; Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1963), pp. 240-241Parennefer (also called Wennefer) was High Priest of Amen during the reigns of Tutankhamen and Horemheb Kampp, F., and K. J. Seyfried, Eine Rückkehr nach Theben, Antike Welt, Mainz 26 (1995), 325-342. (ill. incl. colours, plans). Kampp-Seyfried, Friederike, Die Verfemung des Namens pA-rn-nfr, in: Stationen. R. Stadelmann gewidmet, 303-319. (pl.).Kampp, F., Vierter Vorbericht über die Arbeiten des Ägyptologischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg in thebanischen Gräbern der Ramessidenzeit, MDAIK 50 (1994), 175-188. (fig., plans, pl.).Nebwa: High Priest of Amun-Re of Paju; From the time of Horemheb. From Topographical Bibliography (pdf - s14) Nebwa Nb-wi, First prophet of Amun-Re of P3-jw (Tell el-Balamûn), son of Huy H.jj With wife Mutnefert(t) Mwt-nfr(t), Songstress of Amun of P3-jw, in Cairo Mus. CG 883 (JE 29092).
19th Dynasty
Nebneteru Tenry was High Priest of Amun under Sety I His wife Merytre was Chief of the Harem of Amun. Both are known from monuments of their son, the vsier Paser.Nebneteru Tenry and Merytre are mentioned in TT 106, the tomb of their son Paser, Governor of the Town and Vizier as well as on statues belonging to Paser. Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): A statue in Copenhagen mentions Paser P3-sr , Governor of the Town and Vizier, etc. son of Nebneteru Tenry (Nb-ntrw Tnrj) and Merytre (Mrjjt-r) with text mentioning Amun-Re, Thoth, etc.A stamped brick (Museo Arch. Nazionale/Museo Egizio) can be found on the Global Egyptian Museum Site. The text reads:
r-pat hAty-a n niwt PAsr mAa-xrw sA tpy n Hm nTr Imn NbnTrw Dd-f *nryHereditary Prince and Count, Paser, justified, son of the First Prophet of Amun, Nebneteru, called TjenryNebwenenef, High priest of Amun, Temp Rameses II. TT 157. His wife was named Takhat. She held the titles of Chief of the Harem of Amun, and Songstress of IsisNebwenenef is shown followed by a fan-bearer appearing before Rameses II and (Merymut) Nefertari in a palace window. Nebwenenef is being appointed as High priest of Amun (year 1 of Rameses II). Before being appointed High Priest of Amun, Nebwenenef was High Priest of Hathor at Dendera and High Priest of Anhur at Thinis. After his appointment as High Priest of Amun, his son Sementawy became High Priest of HAthor. This post had apparently always been held by his family.Nebwnenef's tomb is discussed on the website maintained by the Universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig. Nebwenenef was also the owner of a mortuary temple at Thebes. Nebwenenef is one of only a select group of commoners who were allowed to construct a temple here. A plan of the temple as well as some photographs of stelaea and foundation deposits can be found at Digitalegypt (University College London)Ritner, R. K., Denderite Temple Hierarchy and the Family of Theban High Priest Nebwenenef: Block Statue OIM 10729, in: For His Ka. Essays Baer, 205-226. (fig.).
Nebwenenef (Detroit Museum) and statues of Nebwenenef and Takhat (TT157)Bekenkhons (I), High priest of Amun, Temp. Ramesses II. (TT35).Parents: Roma (First and Second Prophet of Amun) and Roma (Singer of Amun). Wife: Mertesger (Chief of the Harem of Amun) Jansen-Winkeln, K., The Career of the Egyptian High Priest Bakenkhons, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 52 (1993), 221-225.On the Global Egyptian Museum Site: "The rose-coloured granite sarcophagus belonging to Bakenkhonsu, First High Priest of Amun during the reign of Ramesses II. It is decorated with representations of funerary deities and bands of text."
Granite sarcophagus of Bakenkhons(u), now in the Liverpool MuseumUnnefer (Wennefer) : Time of Rameses II. Known from a family statue (in Copenhagen) dedicated to him by his son Ameneminet . The father of Unnefer is Minhotep, mother Maya. From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Unnufer (Wnn-nfr), First prophet of Amun, etc., son of Minhotep (Mnw-tp) and Maya (Mj3), dedicated by son Amenemonet (Jmn-m-jnt) , Overseer of works on all monuments of Ramesses II, etc., with text mentioning Amun-Re lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, Min-Hor in Koptos, Ptah-Sokari lord of Shetyt, etc., in Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek."Unnefer was married to Isis, who was Chief of the Musicians of Amun; From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf):Family group statue of Amenemonet (Jmn-m-jnt) , Chief of the Medjay, Overseer of works on the monuments of His Majesty etc., son of Unnufer (Wnn-nfr) , First prophet of Amun, and Esi (3st), Chief of the harîm of Amun, with twenty-two mummiform figures of relatives, in Naples, Museo Archeologico NazionalePaser: temp Rameses II. It is possible that this is the same man who served as Vizier for many years. If this is the case, then Paser was awarded the position of High Priest of Amun later in his career. Paser the Vizier was the son of the high priest of Amun Nebneteru Tenry, but the High Priest of Amun Paser never refers to his parents in the monuments he left as high priest.From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Paser (P3-sr) , First prophet of Amun, lower part, with text mentioning Amun, black granite, now in St Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum."Rama(ray), high priest of Amun, Rameses II - Merenptah. TT 283.
Statue of Roma-RoyWife: Tamut (name in niche in court), Tabest (name on stela in Museum in Leiden) On the stela Ramaray is given the titles: The Prince and Count, the God's Father, clean of hands, Priest of Kamutef, Overseer of the prophets of all the gods, Third Prophet of Amun, Second Prophet of Amun, First Prophet of Amun. (H.D. Schneider and M.J. Raven, Life and Death Under the Pharaohs, Australia, 1999 (?) , pg 40-41)Roy : temp Seti II. Son of Rama(ray) (the previous High Priest) according to a statue mentioned here His titles include: Greatest of Ra-Atum's seers in Thebes, second prophet of Amun, and first prophet of Amun. He has a son named Bakenkhonsu.Ramose : Known from a statue. It is possible that Ramose was a high priest of Amun at another temple (i.e. not Karnak). There was also an active cult of Amun at the temple of Deir el-Bahari for instance.From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): Ramosi (R -ms), First prophet of Amun, holding pedestal with the Theban Triad (head of Mut lost), Dyn. 19, in auction in Luzern. Minmose : Known from a statue in Leipzig. It is possible that Minmose was a high priest of Amun at another temple (i.e. not Karnak). There was also an active cult of Amun at the temple of Deir el-Bahari for instance.From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): Minmosi (Mnw-ms), First prophet of Amun, sandstone, end of Dyn. 19 or early Dyn. 20 in Leipzig, Ägyptisches Museum, Inv. 6021.A High Priest of Amun named Minmose is also mentioned on a statue of (Pa)Rahotep. On the statue, Rahotep's father the High priest of Ptah Pahemnetjer is shown with "his brother" Minmose, High priest of Amun. It is not clear to me if Minmose is a "brother" of Rahotep, or of Pahemnetjer. The name of Minmose is translated as Amsu-mose, but the hieroglyphs used are the same as those that are translated as Minmose.This statue is mentioned in: Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology; v.14 (1891-92)Hori : High Priest of Amun.Traditionally this High Priest is placed at the end of the 19th dynasty. Pammiger argues that Hori must date to the reign of Ramesses II (more precisely ca year 24). Hori is known to have had a son, the lieutenant-commander of chariotry, Kanakht.Pammiger, P., Hori, Hoherpriester des Amun, JEA 85 (1999), 226-230.Bakenkhons(II): temp Sethnakht to Ramesses III. Known from several monuments including a black granite statue at Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Son of Amenemopet. From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Bekenkhons (B3k-n-nsw), First prophet of Amun, etc., son of Amenemopet (Jmn-m-jpt), head and base with feet lost, with figure of Hathor chieftainess of Thebes in Djeser (Deir el-Bari) on front, sandstone, now in Louvre, (Probably from Deir el-Bari.)"And: "Bekenkhons B3k-n-nsw, First prophet of Amun, etc., son of Amenemopet Jmn-m-jpt, Overseer of recruits of the temple of Amun, with mention of deified Amenhotep I, lower part, granodiorite in Berlin, Ägyptisches Museum, 2082."From Topographical Bibliography etc (pdf): "Statue of Bekenkhons (B3k-n-h . nsw) , First prophet of Amun, etc., son of Amenemopet (Jmn-m-jpt), holding ram-headed standard, with text mentioning Amun-Re lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, now in Boston MA, Museum of Fine Arts, 07.645. (Probably from Karnak.) "Ramessesnakht, High priest of Amun, Temp. Ramesses IV - Ramesses IX Tomb: TT 293. Father: Merubaste (Chief Steward of the Lord of the Two Lands) Ramessesnakht was married to Adjedet-Aat and had at least two sons: Nebamun and Amenhotep, and a daughter Tamerit. Tamerit was married to the Third Prophet of Amun, Amenemope and is identified as the daughter of Ramessesnakht and Adjedet-Aat in Amenemope's tomb (TT148).Ramessesnakht's wife was the daughter of the First Prophet of Nekhbet named Setau in El Kab. Ramessesnakht is depicted in Setau's tomb in El Kab. (see osirisnet)It is known that Ramessesnakht went on a quarrying expedition to the Wadi Hammamat during the reign of Ramesses IV and secured gold and galena (for eye paint) under Ramesses VII and IX. (f.i. Chapter 2 of Egyptian Historical Inscriptions of the Twentieth Dynasty by A. J. Peden.) Ramessesnakht was buried during the reign of Ramesses IX.Rock cut stela in the Wadi Hammamat record expeditions. In year 3 of Ramesses IV the High Priest Ramessesnakht lead an expedition consisting of some 8,368 men including a fully organized division of the Egyptian army (The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg.371)Amenhotep, The vizier, great confidante of his mater, first prophet of Amun-resonther, Ramses IX - XI.Son of Ramessesnakht.During the reign of Ramesses XI, the Viceroy of Nubia attacked Thebes to restore order. Paneshy besieged the high priest at the fortified temple of Medinet Habu. It is not known if the High Priest, Amenhotep, survived this attack.See: The Suppression of the High Priest Amenhotep, by Edward F. Wente, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 1966Morales, A. J., The Suppression of the High Priest Amenhotep: A Suggestion to the Role of Panhesi, GM 181 (2001), 59-75.
Niwinski, A., Bürgerkrieg, militärischer Staatsstreich und Ausnahmezustand in Ägypten unter Ramses XI. Ein Versuch neuer Interpretation der alten Quellen, in: Gegengabe Brunner-Traut, 235-262. Discusses HPA Amenhotep, Panehesy and Herihor.Panehesy: The Viceroy of Nubia also became High Priest of Amun? This could be another individual or even another temple though.A shabti of the First Prophet of Amun Panehesy is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum. The Scepter of Egypt II, by W. C. Hayes pg.427Herihor: Temp Ramses XI. Herihor also served as general. Herihor was married to the lady Nodjmet, who may have been a sister of Ramses XI.Pa-ankh: temp Rameses XI His name is sometimes written as Piankhi. He was also a general and later founded the 21st dynasty. Possibly son-in-law of Herihor. Piankhi's wife is named Hereret.The order and family relation of Herihor and Piankh is not clear. See:Jansen-Winkeln, K., Das Ende des Neuen Reiches, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde.119 (1992), 22-37.Rossler-Kohler, U., Pianch - Nedjemet - Anchefenmut -- eine Kleinigkeit, Göttinger Miszellen, 167 (1998), 7-8.Gundlach, R., Das Königtum des Herihor. Zum Umbruch in der ägyptischen Königsideologie am Beginn der 3. Zwischenzeit, in: Aspekte spätägyptischer Kultur. Festschrift Winter, 133-138. (also discusses Pinudjem I)
21st DynastyFor a genealogy of the family of 21st Dynasty HIgh Priests of Amun, see http://www.cesras.org/Prd/TIP/21a-family.htmlPinudjem I: Vizier and Generalissimo. From year 16 of Nesibanebdjedet I he took on full Pharaonic titles. Son of Piankhi by Hereret. Father of Djedkhonsiufankh, Masaharta and Psusennes I. Wife: Isetemkheb II.A shabti can be found On the Global Egyptian Museum SiteSee also: http://www.tt320.eu01.org/pinodjem_i.htmlMasaharta: Son of Pinudjem I and Isetemkheb II. Also served as Generalissimo. Served from at least year 16 until Year 24 of Nesibanebdjedet I. The mummies of Masaharta, his wife Tahuyeret and daughter Isetemkheb were found in TT320 (the Deir el-Bahari cache). See also: http://www.cesras.org/Roi/21D/Masaharta.htmlMenkheperre II: Son of Pinudjem I. Became HPA after his brothers during year 25 of Nesibanebdjedet I. Also served as Generalissimo.Sliwa, J., An unpublished stamped brick of Menkheperre, High Priest of Amun, Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization, Kraków 2 (1992), 23-26. (fig., ill.). Romer, M., Gottes- und Priesterherrschaft in Ägypten am Ende des Neuen Reiches. Ein religionsgeschichtliches Phänomen und seine Grundlagen, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 1994 Quote from AEB 94.0572: ".. an examination of the titles employed by Herihor and his successors Paiankh, Painedjem, Masaharta, and Menkheperre."Nesibanebdjedet II (Smendes II): Son of Menkeperre II and Isetemkheb III. Served as high Steward under his father and ultimately became HPA himself. Served as HPA under Amenemipet, Osorkon and Siamen. Pinudjem II: Son of Menkheperre II and Isetemkheb III. Followed his brother Nesibanebdjedet II as HPA.Pinudjem was married to his niece Nesikhonsu, the daughter of the High Priest of Amun Nesibanebdjedet and his wife Tahentdjehuty.An inscription on the wall of DB320 mentions: "Year 10 4 prt 20. Day of burial (krs) of the Osiris, high priest of Amon-Re king of the gods, great chief of the army, the leader Pinudjem, by the god's father of Amun, overseer of the treasury Djedkhonsiufankh; the god's father of Amun, scribe of the army, chief inspector Nespakashuty; the prophet of Amun ...enamun; the god's father of Amun Wennufer; by the king's scribe of the Place of Truth Bakenmut; the chief workman Pediamun; the chief workman Amenmose; the god's father of Amun, chief of secrets, Pediamun son of Ankhefenkhons" Other linen dockets are inscribed with:"Linen which the high priest of Amun Pinudjem son of Menkheperre made for Amun (in) Yr 7""Linen which the high priest of Amun Pinudjem (son of) Menkheperre made for Khons in Yr 9"(ref: Theban Royal Mummy Project)See also: http://www.tt320.eu01.org/pinodjem_ii.htmlMunro, I., Der Totenbuch-Papyrus des Hohenpriesters Pa-nedjem II. (pLondon BM 10793/pCampbell). ISBN 3-447-03843-8[Publication of the important B.D. papyrus of the High Priest of Amun Pinodjem II (Pap. BM London 10793, also known as Pap. Campbell).]Psusennes? Von Beckerath argues for the existence of a Tanite king named Psusennes II who reigned after Siamun, and the existence of a Theban High Priest of Amun bearing the same name. (from: AEB 92.0450)von Beckerath, J., Noch einmal Psusennes II., GM 130 (1992), 17-19.
22nd DynastyShoshenq II: Son of Osorkon I and Maatkare II. Served as HPA at Karnak for large part of his father’s reign.Known from: A statuette of Bes, dedicated by Sheshonk Ššnk, First prophet of Amun-Re, Great general in chief, son of Osorkon I, Now in Durham, Oriental Museum, N.313. Topographical Bibliography (pdf - s26)Iuput: Son of Shoshenq I HPA for most of his father’s reign, and into the reign of his brother Osorkon II. 944-924 BCThis High Priest is mentioned on linenin the cache in DB320. Year 10 of Shoshenq I/Iuput: "Noble linen which the dual king (nsw bity) lord of he two lands Hedjkheperre son of Re lord of appearings Shoshenq-meramun made for his father Amun (in) year 10; noble linen which the high priest of Amon-Re, great chief of the army Iuput, true of voice, king's son of the lord of the two lands Shoshenq-meramun, made for his father Amun (in) Year 10"Another shorter inscription from year 11 is mentioned (ref: Theban Royal Mummy Project)Iuwlot: Son of Osorkon I. Probably became HPA late in the reign of Osorkon I and served until the early years of Takelot I. He records the height of the Nile in Karnak in year 5 of Takelot I. 924-894 BCNesibanebdjedet III: Son of Osorkon I. Served as HPA during the middle of the reign of his brother Takelot I. He records the height of the Nile in Karnak in years 8 and 14 of Takelot I. Also called Smendes. 884-874 BCHarsiese: Son of Soshenq II. Promoted to HPA under Osorkon II. 874-860 BC[…du/aw…] Possibly Pedubast. Son of Harsiese.. May have become HPA on the elevation of Harsiese to kingship. 860-855 BCNimlot III: Son of Osorkon II. Became HPA after year 16 . The name of his predecessor […du/aw…] was erased. 855-845 BCTakelot F: Son of Nimlot III. Followed his father as HPA before probably becoming a Theban King as Takelot II. 845-840 BCOsorkon B: Eldest son of Takelot II. Probably became HPA after his father assumed kingship. 840-785 BC Later took the throne as Osorkon III.Osorkon F: probably son of Rudamun and grand-son of Osorkon III. ?Harsiese B, son of […du/aw…] i.e. Pedubast? 835-800 BC.
25th DynastyHaremakhet: Son of Shabaka 704?-660 BCHarkhebi: Son of Haremakhet, Grand-son of Shabaka. Served as HPA until at least year 14 of Psamtik I. 660-644 BC[ 2 unattested HPA or vacant? 644-595]Ankhnes-Neferibre, The God's Wife of Amun also served as High Priest of Amun. 595-560 BCNitocris B, Daughter of Pharaoh Ahmose (II). 560-550?
Later PeriodsPafiy First prophet of Amun-Re from early Dyn. 26, From Statue inscription: Pefiy P3.f-jj, First prophet of Amun-Re, etc., son of Nakht Nh.t (i.e. Harnakht H.rw-nh.t) now in Moscow, State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts Topographical Bibliography (pdf - s20)

DO ANCIENT EGYPTIAN

Why did the Egyptians bury their dead with the headdress on the head, beard on the chin, and shepherd’s staff in the hand?
There is no single theory in Egyptology with unanimous support that logically explains the meaning of these funerary vestures. A new study reveals they form an image of the Christian Saviour — a bearded shepherd with long hair.
The headdress, beard, and shepherd’s staff have a symbolic meaning. They were used to transform the outward appearance of the deceased into an image of the god Osiris, the single most important Egyptian deity, and the first in recorded history to have risen from the dead.
Religion of Resurrection
"The central figure of the ancient Egyptian Religion was Osiris," wrote the late Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, "and the chief fundamentals of his cult were the belief in his divinity, death, resurrection, and absolute control of the destinies of the bodies and souls of men. The central point of each Osirian’s Religion was his hope of resurrection in a transformed body and of immortality, which could only be realized by him through the death and resurrection of Osiris." 1
Early in Egyptian history it was a religious custom to bury the dead kings in the image of Osiris. Later the upper classes and eventually the common masses were given an Osirian burial. The custom reflects the Egyptians quest to follow in his resurrection. Henri Frankfort, a former professor of Preclassical Antiquity at the University of London, underscored this idea: "It may be well to emphasize that the identification of the dead with Osiris was a means to an end, that is, to reach resurrection in the Hereafter." 2
The name "Osiris" (Ausar) in hieroglyphics contains the silhouette of a bearded man with long hair. This is the same image engraved on the anthropomorphic coffins. The nemes headdress, beginning on the forehead of the deceased and resting upon the shoulders, is symbolic of long hair. (The headdress was tied into a ponytail in the back of the head as is often done with long hair.) The plaited beard on the chin represents a long beard.
This discovery confronts us with a fascinating mystery: For thousands of years before the rise of Christianity the Egyptians were in a quest to follow in the resurrection of a bearded man with long hair and acquire life after death!
Osirianised coffins also display a shepherd’s staff in the left hand, a distinctly Christian symbol. (Jesus described himself as the "Good Shepherd" of the human flock. Portraits of Christ show him holding the shepherd’s staff.) The shepherd’s staff was depicted in the hands of Osiris in Egyptian artwork. In literature his epithets sa and Asar-sa mean "shepherd" and "Osiris the shepherd." The term shepherd seems an appropriate title for a beloved spiritual leader whose religion of resurrection promised life after death for the wayward soul.
Cross of Life
Incredibly, "life" after death was expressed by the ankh cross, another symbol with a counterpart in Christianity. The ankh was the most revered and prolific emblem in Egypt. It was inscribed on tombs and temples and it was depicted in the hands of gods, kings, priests, viziers, ordinary citizens, and their children. No one knows its origins. Its meaning of "life" after death is strikingly similar to the meaning of Christ’s crucifix, also symbolic of "life" after death. (Jesus’ Doctrine of Eternal Life is a recurring theme in the New Testament. In John 11:25 Jesus says: "I am the resurrection, and the life: he that believeth in me, though he were dead yet shall he live: And whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die.")
It should be noted that symbolists see in the ankh the outline of a crucified man: the circle represents his head, the horizontal line his two arms, and the vertical line his legs nailed to the cross as one.
Day of Judgment
After his resurrection Osiris became judge of the souls of the dead. In this position he held the power to grant life in heaven to those who behaved righteously on earth. Wallis Budge explained: "the belief that Osiris was the impartial judge of men’s deeds and words, who rewarded the righteous, and punished the wicked, and ruled over a heaven which contained only sinless beings, and that he possessed the power to do these things because he had lived on earth, and suffered death, and risen from the dead, is as old as dynastic civilization in Egypt..." 3
The Day of Judgment is a central tenet of the Christian religion. The souls of the deceased shall stand before the judgment seat of Christ. Those who have followed his teachings during their lives shall be deemed righteous and be admitted to heaven. II Corinthians 5:10 says: "For we must all appear before the judgment seat [emphasis added] of Christ; that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad."
Depictions of Christ and Osiris as judge are remarkably similar. Michelangelo’s The Last Judgment has many common features to the Day of Judgment etched on Egyptian papyri and carved on tomb walls. In the Egyptian ceremony the heart of the deceased, symbolic of his virtue, moral character, and earthly deeds, was laid on a set of scales and weighed against a single feather representing maat, the divine law. If the scales balanced, the deceased was allowed to pass into heaven.
As judge, Osiris was always portrayed in the seated position, a posture that parallels the New Testament’s descriptions of the judgment seat of Christ.
What are we to make of these striking similarities? Did Christian scholars simply "borrow" images and symbols of Osiris from the Egyptian religion? Or does this evidence reveal a profound and hitherto undiscovered phenomenon that has been affecting the course of human civilization? By uncovering the similarities common to the Egyptian and Christian religions are we, in fact, re-discovering the sacred blueprints of an ancient Messianic tradition that has been accelerating man’s cultural and spiritual development since the beginning of history?
Myth vs. Fact
Because the story of Osiris was so well known in Egypt it was never set down in writing. As a result modern researchers cannot quite gauge the events surrounding his life, death, and resurrection. The first written accounts of Osiris come down to us from sources outside Egypt by way of ancient historians such as Diodorus Siculus (1st C. BC), Herodotus (5th C. BC), and Plutarch (1st C. AD). These classical writers describe Osiris as a semi-divine king who abolished cannibalism, taught men and women to live according to law of maat, improved their morality, and, filled with love for mankind, set out on a quest to travel the world and bring the benefits of civilization to other cultures. Their commentary continues with mythological descriptions of the murder of Osiris by a jealous brother named Seth; his rebirth, accomplished by the magic of his sister/wife, Isis; and his second death, caused again by Seth, who dismembered his body and scattered the pieces up and down the Nile. After the utter destruction of Osiris his son, Horus, defeats Seth in an epochal battle thereby vindicating his murdered father.
The myth of Osiris seems to take place half in our world and half in an enchanted world of magic and make-believe. This element of fiction is responsible, in part, for the misconception that Osiris was a fictional being. The facts left among the ruins of ancient Egypt tell an entirely different story. The Osirian religion sparked a renaissance among the ancient Nile-dwellers the effects of which impacted every facet of their primitive society. It instilled in them a high moral code, a sense of good and evil, and an inclination toward brotherly love and admiration unprecedented in human history and unparalleled by any other ancient nation.
It also fostered a highly advanced philosophy. Osiris worshippers realized the human body was neither perfect nor permanent. But they were also convinced death was not the end of their being. There was an eternal, spiritual element within them that would rise – resurrect – from the body and exist in a higher spiritual realm, provided their behavior was in accordance with a high moral code (maat). Consequently, they never became too attached to the things of this world. This is precisely the same philosophy expressed in the religion of Christianity sparked by the life, death, and resurrection of the Christian Saviour.
Phoenix in the East
The Egyptians likened the spirit of Osiris to a heavenly bird, much like Christianity portrays the soul of Jesus as a white and shining dove. The Egyptians called the bird Benu, the Greeks called it the phoenix. According to legend this magnificent creature miraculously appears in the eastern sky during fixed points in history to announce the start of a new world age. When it appears the bird mysteriously sets itself ablaze and is suddenly consumed by fire and ashes. However, it arises triumphantly from death renewed and rejuvenated.
Scholars unanimously believe the phoenix was a symbol of Osiris. German Philologist Adolf Erman explained "the soul of Osiris…dwells in the bird Benu, the phoenix…." 4 A passage from the Coffin Texts supports this observation: "I am that great Phoenix which is in On. Who is he? He is Osiris. The supervisor of what exists. Who is he? He is Osiris." 5
The attributes of Osiris as phoenix are the same attributes associated with the Christian Messiah. Both the phoenix and the Messiah appear in the eastern sky (the star of Bethlehem arose in the east heralding the newborn King). Both rise from the dead. Both embody the theme of life after death through resurrection. Both herald the star of new ages. (Christ’s appearance initiated the current age: BC/AD.) Finally, and perhaps most importantly, both are associated with the promise of a destined re-appearance (Christians are currently expecting Christ’s re-appearance, i.e., the Doctrine of the Second Coming).
What is the significance behind the parallels common to the phoenix and the Messiah? Does the phoenix myth enshrine wisdom of the appearances of a recurring Saviour in human history, a Saviour whose life, death, and resurrection was purposely designed to accelerate the development of human culture? Is there a powerful and well-guarded tradition expressed in the myth of Egypt’s enigmatic phoenix? A tradition that is now on the verge of being re-discovered?
The "FIRST TIME" of Osiris
The Egyptians associated the first appearance of the phoenix with a golden age in their history known as Zep Tepi, the "First Time." They were convinced the foundations of their civilization were established during this remote and glorious epoch. R. T. Rundle Clark, former professor of Egyptology at Manchester University, commented on the ancients conception of the First Time: "Anything whose existence or authority had to be justified or explained must be referred to the 'First Time.’ This was true for natural phenomena, rituals, royal insignia, the plans of temples, magical or medical formulae, the hieroglyphic system of writing, the calendar – the whole paraphernalia of the civilization…All that was good or efficacious was established on the principles laid down in the "First Time" – which was, therefore, a golden age of absolute perfection..." 6
The First Time seems to have been the period during which Osiris reigned as foremost king of Egypt. It was during this era that he established law (maat) and initiated worship of Ra, Egypt’s monotheistic God. Rundle Clark explained: "The reign of Osiris was a golden age, the model for subsequent generations." 7 Maat and monotheism, the "model for subsequent generations" set forth by Osiris, was the driving force behind Egyptian culture for thousands of years.
What exactly does the phrase "the First Time" mean? Is it a reference to the first appearance – the first coming – of the Christian Saviour on earth? Was there a guiding force behind the rise of Egyptian culture? The same guiding force that has inaugurated the empire of Christendom? Was the First Time an era during which an ancient Messianic tradition was first established? A tradition aimed at revealing cultural wisdom, law, and spiritual truth to mankind during different historical epochs?
Richard R. Cassaro graduated from Pace University in New York with a BA in journalism and a minor in philosophy. His groundbreaking book The Deeper Truth: Uncovering the Missing History of Egypt (www.deepertruth.com), evokes a powerful image of Osiris as the Shepherd, Messiah, and eternal King of ancient Egypt.

The Four Sons of Horus rising from a Lotus blossom (Blue Lilly)

"Four Sons of HORUS*

The Four Sons of Horus are sometimes described as the funerary deities, or genii (sing, genius). Their names are Imsety (imsti), Hapy (hpy, not to be confused with the Nile river god, Hapi), Duamutef and Kebehsenuef. All references we have to these deities are funerary in context, and it appears that no cults ever honored them.

Right: The Four Sons of Horus rising from a Lotus blossom (Blue Lilly)
While the family genealogy of these deities is not well established, they are clearly stated to be the sons of Horus in any number of texts. For example, while Isis was said to be their mother, in Spell 125 of the Book of the Dead, they are seen as having sprung from a lotus flower (Blue Lilly). In various text, Horus of Khem, Harsiese and Horus the Elder are all cited as being their father. The four sons were also associated with four protective goddess, usually being paired as Imsety and Isis, Hapy and Nephthys, Duamutef and Neith, and Kebehsenuef and Selket.
The Sons of Horus were associated with various points of the compass, as well, with Imsety linked to the South, Hapy with the North, Duamutef the East and Kebehsenuef the West. In addition, Hapy and Duamutef were associated with the northern Delta city of Buto, while Imsety and Kebehsenuef were linked to the southern, or Upper Egyptian city of Hierakonpolis.
Right: Duamutef with the head of a jackel
We find references to these deities from the Old Kingdom all the way through to Greco- Roman times. The earliest extensive religious text, known as the Pyramid Texts, mentions them a total of fourteen times. From these texts, we learn of their basic nature.
For example, Spell 2078 and 2079 describe them as,
"friends of the king, (who) attend on this King...., the children of Horus of Khem (letopolis); they tie the rope-ladder for this King. they make firm the wooden ladder for this King, they cause the King to ascend to Khepri when he comes into being in the eastern side of the sky".
From Spell 1333, we learn that they, "spread protection of life over your father the Osiris King, since he was restored by the gods", while Sepll 552 tells us that, "I will not be thirsty by reason of Shu, I will not be hungry by reason of Tefnut; Hapy, Duamutef, Kebehsenuef, and Imsety will expel this hunger which is in my belly and this thirst which is on my lips". However, in the New Kingdom Book of the Going Forth by Day (the Book of the Dead, Spell 137), tells us more about these gods:
"O sons of Horus, Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, Kebehsenuef: as you spread your protection over your father Osiris-Khentimentiu, so spread your protection over (the deceased), as you remove the impediment from Osiris-Khentimentiu, so he might live with the gods and drive Seth from him."

[Imsety] (664 - 30 BCE)

Spell 17 elaborates further on these gods, telling us that:
"As for the tribunal that is behind Osiris, Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, Kebehsenuef; it is these who are behind the Great Bear in the northern sky....As for these seven spirits, Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, Kebehsenuef, Maayotef, He-Who-is-under-his-Moringa-Tree, and Horus-the-Eyeless, it is they who were set by Anubis as a protection for the burial of Osiris."
In the tenth division of the Book of Gates, these supernatural beings are also shown restraining the ummti (wmmti) snakes, who were allies of Apophis, an enemy of Re, with chains.
Left: A depiction of Imsety
As protectors then, it is not surprising that from the Middle Kingdom through the Greco-Roman era, these deities are referenced in almost every tomb, and their powers are invoked upon almost all coffins and canopic equipment. We find actual representations of them during the 18th Dynasty on the sides of the coffin trough, with Anubis-Amywet and Anubis-Khenty-seh-netjer standing between the genii. They were also depicted on New Kingdom sarcophagi in stone and wood. During this period three dimensional representations of their heads adorned the lids of canopic jars, because they were thought to be either the guardians or the actual reincarnation of the specific organs removed during he mummification process. In this regard, Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef and Kebehsenuef were linked with the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines respectively, though sometimes the associations of Hapy and Duamutef are found switched about. They were also associated with other body parts. For example Hapy and Duamutef were linked to the hands, while Imsety and Kebehsenuef were linked with the feet (Spell 149 form the Pyramid Text).
Right: The Four Sons of Horus from the Tomb of Ay
On canopic equipment, their heads were originally depicted as human, though a few canopic chests from the Middle Kingdom depict them with falcon heads. During these early periods, they usually wear the divine tripartite wig, though in the tomb of King Ay in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank of Luxor (ancient Thebes), Imsety and Hapy are depicted wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, while Duamutef and Kebeshsenuef wear the White Crown of Southern Egypt.
However, between the early 18th Dynasty and the middle 19th Dynasty, their heads were depicted differently, with Imsety's head remaining human, while Hapy took on the appearance of an Ape, Duamutef that of a Jackal, and Kebeshsenuef that of a falcon. This form of representation persisted into the Greco-Roman period, with the exception of the 22nd and 23rd Dynasties, when at least six different combinations of the gods can be found, the most common showing Duamutef and Kebeshsenuef swapping heads.
Left: Hapy as Baboon and Kebeshsenuef with a falcon head from the Tomb of Nefertari
Late in the 3rd Intermediate Period, these deities even gained more prominence. In addition to their presence on coffins and conopic equipment, faience amulets of the deities were attached to the bandages or other mummy wrappings. From the time of Ramesses III, was images of the Four Sons of Horus were placed in the mummy's body cavity.

climatedata
Hypocephalus of the temple musician Neshorpakhered
From Thebes, Egypt Ptolemaic Period, 4th to 3rd century BC Inscribed with a spell to give warmth to the head of the deceased The hypocephalus, literally 'that which is below the head', was placed between the head of the mummy and the funerary headrest. The earliest examples appeared in the Late Period, around 664 BC. They were simply inscribed pieces of papyrus, mounted on cartonnage discs. By the Ptolemaic period (332-30 BC), they were made of linen stiffened with plaster, decorated with vignettes. The hieroglyphic inscription runs around the circumference of the disc. This example is decorated with scenes relating to the daily creation of the sun. The two boats represent the sun during the night (left) and the day (right). Below, baboons herald the birth of the sun, whose four heads represent the first four generations of creation. Below are figures associated with the Afterlife, including the four sons of Horus, who looked after the internal organs of the deceased. The spell around the outside of the disc is an abbreviated form of Chapter 162 of the Book of the Dead. It contains an appeal: 'Cause to come into being a flame beneath his head for he is the soul of that corpse which rests in Heliopolis, Atum is his name'. G. Pinch, Magic in Ancient Egypt (London, The British Museum Press, 1994) I. Shaw and P. Nicholson (eds.), British Museum dictionary of A (London, The British Museum Press, 1995) S. Quirke and A.J. Spencer, The British Museum book of anc (London, The British Museum Press, 1992)

# Imsety (man-headed): liver; Hapy (baboon-headed): Lungs; Qebehsenuef (falcon-headed): intestines; Duamutef (jackal-headed): stomach

I: Early Egyptian Constellations

The ancient Egyptians developed their own constellation system based on important gods/goddesses and animals in their mythology. The number of Egyptian constellations was not a extensive as in other contemporary civilizations such as the Babylonians of the Tigris-Euphrates basin. However, the evidence suggests that the ancient Egyptians had a complete set of constellations that covered the entire sky visible from Egypt.
In the New Kingdom period (circa 1500 to 1100 BCE), the classical astronomical representations were painted on temple ceilings (i.e., the Ramesseum ceiling) and on the sepulchral vaults of kings (i.e., the tomb of Senmut). (The Ramesseum (a temple complex which was built for Ramses II, whose reign lasted from 1279 to 1212 BCE) is situated in Upper Egypt at Luxor (formerly known as Thebes) on the west bank of the Nile River.)
The "astronomical ceilings," some from tombs and some from temples, are amongst the most important surviving Egyptian "astronomical documents." These particular ceilings contain decorative motifs and were designed to provide both a symbolic and schematic summary of astronomical knowledge. During the 1930s the astronomer Alexander Pogo (then working at Harvard University (following his 1929 appointment as a Fellow in the History of Science by the Carnegie Institution)) conducted investigations of Egyptian astronomy and (1) first recognised the astronomical content of inscriptions on coffin lids from the end of the Middle Kingdom, and (2) the relationship between these simple pictures and the elaborate representations on the tomb ceilings of kings of the New Kingdom period.
It would appear that by the late 2nd-millennium BCE the Egyptians had divided the sky into a small number of very large constellations. By circa 1100 BCE, not including the 36 decans, an Egyptian catalog of the universe had marked the sky with 5 or 6 very large constellations (including such animal figures as the Hippopotamus, Ox, and Crocodile). Two of these constellations were similar to the Western constellations Orion and Ursa Major. As the Egyptians were accustomed to regard the whole sky as a figure of the goddess Nut, supported on hands and feet, it posed no difficulties for them to develop constellation figures of half that extent. (The constellation figure of Nekht ("mighty man") must, by the description of its hourly parts, have extended over 6 hours.) During the 1st-millennium BCE these constellations would be divided further into some 25 constellations. The grouping of constellations around (and including) the Big Dipper stars is conveniently described as the northern group of constellations. The designation is not necessarily restricted to the the circumpolar stars. The northern group of constellations included a lion, a crocodile, a bull's foreleg (also represented as a complete bull), a boatman, a giant man, and/or a huge female hippopotamus with a crocodile tail (or an entire crocodile) on her back.
In 1985 Kurt Locher offered his view that the circumpolar constellations could be identified as Crocodile, Hippopotamus, Chain, Mooring Posts, (God) Anu, and Foreleg. However, it is more difficult to determine correspondence between the ancient Egyptian constellations and our present-day Western constellations. All of the northern constellation figures are not located in the same positions on Egyptian tombs and ceilings. The northern constellation figures drawn on the ceiling of the burial chamber in the tomb of Seti I (19th Dynasty) are positioned differently to the same northern constellation figures drawn in the tomb of Senmut (Senenmut) (18th Dynasty).
The northern (circumpolar) stars were called lkhemu-sek (imperishable stars), because they never sink below the horizon. The southern stars were called lkhemu-wredj (unwearying stars), because they rose on the eastern horizon and set on the western horizon. The ecliptic can be conveniently used as an arbitrary dividing line between the northern constellations and the southern constellations. The southern group of constellations was essentially formed by the belt of individual stars and asterisms comprising the decanal belt. The goddess Nut was the Milky Way.
It appears the oldest existing northern constellation is Meskhetyw (the foreleg of a bull). This constellation appears on the inside of a coffin lid excavated at Asyut and dating from the First Intermediate Period (circa 2145 BCE to circa 2025 BCE). To the left of the foreleg is vertical hieroglyphic writing stating Meskhetyw m pet (Meskhetyw in the northern sky).
Two identifiable constellations among the southern Egyptian star groups are Sah (corresponding to the current Orion's belt) and Sepdet (corresponding to Sirius). Due to Sah rising 1 hour before Sirius in the decanal tables Sah is commonly interpreted by Egyptologists as the constellation Orion. The name Sah is first found in the "Pyramid Text" engraved in the pyramid of Unas (the last king of the 5th Dynasty Old Kingdom). He reigned circa 2340 BCE to circa 2320 BCE. The figures of both Sah and Sepdet appear on wooden coffin lids dating between the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom.
An alternative name for the Bull's thigh (= Foreleg of the bull)", which was the "big dipper" asterism, was "The foreleg of Seth." The Boatman comprised Orion's belt and some other stars. The Hippopotamus was identified with the goddess Isis - at least in the New Kingdom Period (1570-1070 BCE). The Hippopotamus and the Giant Man took up about half the sky.
One of the few constellations that is unambiguously identifiable is the constellation of Orion (Sah). However, the association of names with its individual stars is indeterminate. (The only one of the decans that is able to be unambiguously identified is Sirius (Sepdet).) A coffin lid provides the only other certain constellation identification from ancient Egypt. A scene on a coffin lid depicts the 7 stars of the Big Dipper asterism (part of Ursa Major) in the form of the foreleg (thigh) of an Ox (not Taurus) and is named Meskhetyw (Meskheitu (Mshtyw)). (This constellation is not part of the decanal system or the star tables.) It is the only example of a pattern of stars being actually drawn in approximately the known configuration. (The Hippopotamus is commonly identified with the stars of Draco, the Dragon.)

The Senmut tomb has the oldest intact representation of the northern constellations. Above is a reconstruction (by Otto Neugebauer and Richard Parker (EAT, Volume 3, Text)) of the arrangement of the ancient Egyptian northern constellations depicted on the Senmut ceiling. The circumpolar constellations were important to the Egyptians because they never appeared before the rising sun. As such they were often linked with the powers of darkness and with ferocious animals. The (unfinished) tomb of Senmut is located at Deir el-Bahri, Luxor. (Senmut was an architect and the vezir of Queen Hatshepsut.) It dates to circa 1473 BCE. This is approximately three centuries latter than the astronomical inscriptions on coffin lids from the end of the Middle Kingdom. The tomb has the earliest preserved ceiling discovered to date. Whilst placing representations of the sky on ceilings is quite logical the practice also contributes to their easy destruction.
On the ceiling of the decorated chamber there is a decan list and planets (excepting Mars), northern constellations and deities, and lunar calendar.

The arrangement of the ancient Egyptian northern constellations on the astronomical ceiling of Hall K of the tomb of Seti I. No written record survives for identifying the constellations depicted.
Seti I (reigned 1303-1290 BCE) was the son and heir of Ramses I. The tomb of Seti I is located in the Valley of the Kings, Luxor. It is the next well-preserved astronomical ceiling after that of Senmut's tomb. It has close parallels in the tomb of Ramses IV (Dynasty XX, circa 1100 BCE) and later Egyptian rulers. The content of the vaulted ceiling of Hall K comprises a decan list and planets with deities, northern constellations and deities.
Also contained within the Seti I tomb are decorations of the complete versions of the Book of the Dead, the Book of the Gates, the Book of the Caverns, the Book of the Day, the Book of the Night, and the Book of the Cow of Heaven. Further, there is the text of the Deliverance of Mankind, and the Litany of the Sun.
The papyrus "Carlsberg 1", though written more than 1000 years after the Seti 1 text, is a commentary to these inscriptions.
The astronomical ceiling (Denderah zodiac) located at the temple of Hathor in Denderah, Egypt dates to the Late Ptolemaic Period (i.e., late Hellenistic Period). The representation of the Egyptian sky is called the Denderah zodiac because it depicts the (Babylonian-Greek) zodiacal constellations (and other Egyptian constellations). (All Egyptian zodiacs are late and originated in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.) Construction began on the temple of Hathor circa 125 BCE and it was finished circa 60 CE. The Denderah circular zodiac itself is dated circa 36 BCE or 30 BCE. It is the oldest known representation of the zodiac.

Appendix 1: Astronomical Ceilings
The "astronomical ceilings" from tombs and temples provide an important schematic summary of the astronomical knowledge of the Egyptians. There are about 20 astronomical wall paintings depicting the northern constellations, dating back to the 15th-century BCE.
The oldest known example of an 䳴ronomical ceiling" is from the second or "secret" tomb of Senmut, dating to the 15th-century BCE, which is located to the east of Deir el-Bahri in the western Theban necropolis.The ceiling of this tomb is unfinished. It is, however, the best preserved of all the surviving examples of "astronomical ceilings." The ceiling is divided into northern and southern panels. The upper portion of the southern panel contains a list of decans showing their relation to the star clocks. Also portrayed are a number of constellations: the ship, the sheep, Osiris in a boat (Orion), and Isis in a boat (Sothis). The centre of the northern panel features a set of figures representing the northern circumpolar constellations.
Other examples of "astronomical ceilings" are: (1) the ceiling of the second hypostyle hall of the Ramesseum (dated circa 1213 BCE); (2) the mortuary temple of Rameses II on the ceiling of Hall K in tomb KV 17 belonging to Seti I. Nearly all "astronomical ceilings" include some representation of the northern constellations and the decanal stars.

Appendix 2: The Goddess Nut
Nut was the ancient Egyptian goddess of he heavens and sky. The ancient Egyptians conceived of the goddess Nut as a naked female who arches her body across the sky (basically east to west and like the arc of the sky) in a protective posture over the earth. Nut's fingers and toes were believed to touch the 4 cardinal points or directions. A myth, recorded in dynastic times, has the god Ra entering Nut's mouth, passing through her starry body, and emerging, reborn, from her loins. According to the astronomer Ronald Wells her figure, during the 3rd-millennium BCE, the Milky Way was believed to represent the goddess Nut. In his 1996 essay (but originally suggested in 1994) "Astronomy in Egypt" (in: Astronomy Before the Telescope) Ronald Wells theorized that the Egyptians equated Nut's body with the Milky Way, seeing her head in our constellation Gemini, and her birth canal in Cygnus, where cosmic dust clouds split the Milky Way into two "legs." He pointed out that early in Egyptian prehistory, about 6,500 years ago, the Sun would have set just before Gemini-Nut's head-at the spring equinox, as if swallowed by the goddess. Nine months later, at the winter solstice, the Sun, reborn, would have risen very close to Cygnus, as if emerging from the birth canal. However, many Egyptologists and archaeoastronomers consider this particular theory of Ronald Wells as highly speculative.
Copyright ? 2005-2008 by Gary D. Thompson